In this paper, and Peter Ward , to name a few. A I interpret the geography of immigration from major lacuna in our current understanding of how India, a less-examined part of Asia. We have immigration regime regarding Indian immigrants, also witnessed dissatisfaction with neoclassical supposed subjects of the empire, which fuelled migration theory and its limited ability to convey active resistance against colonial subjugation in how migration is shaped by social factors, specifi- India Brown ; Mongia This paper cally gender see Willis and Yeoh for a review.
I argue that India-Canada interpreted as involving socially grounded pro- immigration patterns are overwhelmingly shaped cesses imbued with thick cultural meaning. I then present a methodology within its broad geographical and historical con- section, followed by a quantitative profile of immi- text and interpreted as an ongoing and recursive gration from India, with reference to its specific process of connection, not just a singular linear geographies.
I finish by presenting some individual movement. The use of a transnational lens migration stories that are illustrative of the transna- enhances our understanding of the specific nature tional processes that shape immigration decisions of various immigration flows to Canada, because it and settlement patterns and that exemplify how demands that we contextualise our investigations immigration flows are structured over long time across multiple spaces as well as across various periods, forging multiple connections across space.
In addition, a trans- circulations through the use of selected interview national approach emphasises the social and pro- material and fieldwork observations from both cessal nature of migration, rather than just India and Canada.
Before moving to this more highlighting the numerical existence of such detailed analysis, I explain my methodological flows. Geographers interested in immigration mat- approach. This is an important trend, since it forces us to of a relationship must, by definition, engage mul- alter our spatial concepts in light of the connec- tiple sites and scales.
We need to embrace the realisa- which began in Vancouver in with detailed tion that immigrant settlement within Western interviews with Indian immigrants and Canadian cities has always been shaped by engagement government officials, who then directed me to with other, often distant places. Scholars such as potential respondents in India. Using a network anthropologist Arjun Appadurai have or snowball sampling approach, I then interviewed tackled these ideas at an abstract level.
Appadurai contacts in India from October to March theorises the links between nation-states and cir- In total, I was able to conduct over 70 inter- culating populations that struggle to reterritorial- views with various individuals in India and Canada ise their identities across the uneven landscapes of linked to immigrant, trade and capital networks.
In global modernity. Scholars the United States. These included several hospitals such as Alison Mountz and Richard Wright and medical clinics, schools and colleges, village and Katharyne Mitchell reveal how everyday developments and infrastructure projects such as relations are shaped transnationally. In Canada, roads and bridges Walton-Roberts b. My Jennifer Hyndman and Margaret Walton-Roberts methodological approach was flexible in order to , Johanna Waters , Madeleine Wong capture the diverse transnational nature of immi- , Catherine Nolin Hanlon , Thomas grant networks between India and Canada and Owusu and Daniel Hiebert illustrate reveal the social and spatial basis of recursive rela- the nature of transnational linkages that immi- tions between these diverse geographical sites.
I will illustrate this connectivity their families. In this paper, I have selected a with various forms of evidence. First, I demon- range of examples I consider representative of my strate the specificity of the spatial and social general qualitative research findings regarding composition of India-Canada immigration.
I immigrant circulations between Punjab and then illustrate the deeply social nature of such Vancouver. Under Prime Minister Wilfrid young men migrating overseas as a strategy to Laurier, the decision to exclude Indian nationals raise financial resources and maintain family land from Canada was a prominent factor in early holdings Kessinger The legacy of this tight regional migration pro- Early relations with India were characterised by cess is evident in the composition of the Indo- immigrant exclusion, illustrated most obviously Canadian community today.
In the s, John by the continuous passage Order-in-Council Wood suggested that approximately 70 per- Dutton ; Walton-Roberts This discrim- cent of Indian immigrants in Canada were from inatory law was challenged in May by the Punjab, and in the early s, Paynter journey of the Komagata Maru from India to gave the same figure.
Other Indian immigrants Vancouver. She was accompanied by a number gration has been anecdotally obvious to the Indo- of members of Parliament MPs whose ridings are home to Canadian community and immigration officials for large Indo-Canadian communities.
This to land, and the boat was forced to remain anchored for two information has been gathered in response to the months in Burrard Inlet, before being eventually escorted out of demands of Indo-Canadians who argue that the area under federal military control. The Ghadr party is an Canada needs to open a full-service high commis- important example of the political linkages formed in part as a sion in Chandigarh, the capital of Punjab and response to this discrimination.
It was a party formed by Indians overseas to pressure the British out of India; it promoted an Haryana, in order to service potential applicants active violent rebellion based on Indians overseas raising funds from the region. Therefore, details of the actual and returning to India to advance independence see Brown numbers have immense political ramifications This regional concentration across The inten- tion in Canada residing in Ontario or British sity of settlement patterns suggests the potential for transnational circulations with Punjab, and I 3 State categories used for data collection combine the states of will return to this point in the final section of Punjab and Haryana.
Not only did the restrictive when we consider the social composition of immigration policies of the early twentieth century migration. This gen- nation is an important factor in explaining the dered power imbalance has been reinforced over social composition of migrant flows from India; time Das Gupta ; Sharma , and the similarly, the policy framework has also played a ongoing importance of unequal gender relations major role in shaping immigrant community devel- with regard to marriage and family formation in opment.
The Immigration Act of and Christine Fair among others. It was not until that immigration ing for 80 percent of all applications in , but it policy eliminated discrimination based on race, drops to just over 55 percent for all classes. South Asian immigrant numbers changed only slightly throughout the s, as Figure 3 illus- 4 Information regarding the rate of acceptance based on state origin was not provided, nor were the details regarding other trates, due in part to institutional impediments: states, although I was informed that Gujarat was rated as the there was only one immigration office for the second largest source of applications interview, CIC Delhi 17 whole of India, compared to six in the U.
December It has also been sug- interpreted as escaping the violent unrest linked gested that the influx of these Sikhs, who were to the politics of Khalistan and Sikh separatism, primarily young, into the established Sikh Canadian which saw the Indian military storm the Golden community caused some tension, especially with Temple of Amritsar, the holiest of Sikh places, in reference to how the Sikh religion was practiced Following this event, Sikh bodyguards Unna By the late s and early s, Canada around this time was the arrival in of immigration policy changes had begun to be the Amelie off the coast of Nova Scotia with reflected in the increased numbers of skilled Sikhs onboard.
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As the Canadian immigration system has increasingly sought ways to select immigrants based on their human capital, it has correspondingly problematized immigrant families.
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